In the Ancient times, you would expect as a Roman citizen to have the best healthcare in the world. According to the article “Health and Hygiene,” a number of factors contributed to the overall better health standards that citizens experienced including good nutrition and good public health.
A physician helping a young boy, A Profile of Ancient Rome. A Getty Publication
The diet of the average Roman was quite nutritious, and there were generally three meals a day that consisted of an ientaculum (breakfast), a prandium (lunch), and a cena (dinner). Their diet consisted of whole-grains, eggs, cold meats, fruit, vegetables, and fish. These meals were complimented with homemade, healthy natural oils that were high in vitamins and amino acids. The large selection of different foods made for a well balanced diet that can be largely contributed to Roman Imperial Expansion that was occurring during its history.
Hygiene and Exercise:
In addition to a varied and healthy diet, Romans commonly visited bathhouses where they would bathe and then exercise. Bathhouses could be compared to modern day gym facilities in that they provided many amenities including massages, personal medical consultants, and lectures on general heath and diet for Roman citizens to enjoy. Visiting bathhouses was a lifestyle choice for many and was a regular part of the average Roman’s day. Interestingly, common cultural standards of the time looked down upon body odors, so Roman people made sure to put personal cleansing high on their list of priorities.
Public Healthcare:
The Roman people, on average, lived much longer lives than that of their ancient counterparts because of strong medical intervention and assistance from the government. According to “Health and Hygiene,” the Roman government “provide[d] free, publically paid medical services for the poor.” Nearly all of the Roman municipalities at the time contracted local doctors whom they paid relatively low wages to provide these services. Although the position as a public physician was quite coveted and competitive, the doctors did receive a low wage at the end of the day. To combat this, many physicians operated small, privately owned practices on the side where they would assist wealthier Roman citizens who were willing to pay for healthcare.
Roman Medical Advancements:
The Military:
As summarized by Richard Gabriel in his article “The Best Medicine,”
“Death came slowly to soldiers wounded on the battlefields of antiquity. The muscle-powered weapons that hacked at their flesh only rarely inflicted sudden death. Bodies pierced by spears or slashed by swords lingered in agony, sometimes for hours, until the loss of blood brought on shock, convulsions, and, finally, the unconsciousness that precedes death. That was the way it was from the beginning of warfare until modern times—with one surprising exception. In the Roman army wounded soldiers had a good chance to recover and live.”
Looking back into history to see what allowed the relatively high success rates of Roman soldiers’ recoveries compared to other armies at the time dates back to the first attempts at healthcare in the army. Before the reign of Gaius Julius Caesar, many Roman officers would leave injured soldiers behind if they were injured; they simply did not have the knowledge or expertise to aid their distressed comrades. This soon changed when Emperor Augustus (63 B.C. – 14 A.D.) started the first professional military healthcare system that consisted of a group of physicians who followed and assisted injured soldiers. To attract well-experienced and competent physicians, Augustus gave these special medical privileges:
Serving in the medical corps for the Roman Army would entail earning the status of a knight (or dignitas equestris), gaining full citizenship for those who were not previously citizens, receiving the land grants and pensions that soldiers would receive upon retirement, and getting the special tax exemptions that could further perpetuate a officer’s incentive to join the medical corps. Surprisingly, the majority of these Roman army physicians were actually Greeks who had been trained in the empirical practice of medicine back home. In fact, “The Military Medicine of Ancient Rome” states that “[b]efore Greek influences, the Roman legions did not have any organized, professional medical services” (Ferngren 128).
The Roman medical corps soon published standardized manuals about varying types of injuries that made treatment more uniform for all doctors. In addition to the work being done on the battlefield, the corps turned to the living arrangements of the soldiers to ensure better healthcare. Again, they reinforced a high hygienic standard by implementing sewers, providing clean water, making regular health inspections, setting up mosquito netting, providing sunburn oil, and giving healthy and varied meals to soldiers. Additionally, the dead were cremated far from the military encampment’s walls to ensure sterility with the deceased, and soldiers were strongly persuaded to have clean clothes and equipment at all times. With all of these factors combined, “[the average] Roman soldier lived nearly five years longer than the average Roman citizen” (Gabriel 38).
Praefectus castrorum- placed in overall charge of medical services
Optio valentudinarii- responsible for running the hospitals at legion fortresses
Capsarii- medics who carried bandage boxes onto the battlefield
Medicus- the Roman medical officer who was fully trained and directed the medical personnel. Generally were Greek or Greek trained.
Surgical Tools:
The only complete medical text of value that is left today from antiquity is entitled De Medicina, a recording of Roman military surgeon Aulus Cornelius Celsus’s experiences serving in the medical corp. In this text, he describes many instruments that were vital in saving lives.
Mochliskos- a bone lever that appears like giant tongs that was made to put bones back into position before they were set to heal.
Roman Surgical Tools, A Profile of Ancient Rome. A Getty Publication.
Spathumele- a flat oval shaped metal object that was used to mix and flatten medications before being gently smeared onto a wound.
Ferrum Candens- are cauteries, or devices that are used to cut off veins’ and arteries’ blood flow before a massive procedure is preformed. These long metal rods with a blunt tip were heated and then applied to the affected blood vessels.
Hamus- a long and metal rod adorned with a small hook on its end that was used to probe into tissue and raise excess skin for excision.
Cochlear- a spoon shaped device that was used to cleanse wounds or heat medications before their application.
Plumbea Fistuala- a spear shaped device that allowed physicians to drain a wound. This device is hollow on its inside allowing drainage to easily exit the wound while preventing the area to quickly close up.
Ostagra- similar to a mochlishos in that it is used for bones. Ostagras were generally used to remove bone fragments from the wound in depressed fractures of the skull.
Sharpening Stones- squared off and cubical in shape, these stones allowed Roman military surgeons to keep their instruments quite sharp.
Roman Medications:
A variety of medications were available to Roman citizens at the time. Much like today, these medicines varied in strength and application as different areas of the body required unique attention. Records left from ancient medical texts reveal the use of opium poppy and henbane to treat pain (Gabriel 39). Henbane seeds contain scopolamine, a compound that can be found in today’s medical fields as a substance that acts as a preanesthetic. Additionally, white mandrake was used as a surgical drug. The root of this plant produces the chemicals hyoscine and atropine that were vital for numbing affected areas.
Additionally, the article “Hospitals and Treatment Facilities in the Ancient World” reveals that archaeologists have found the remains of five medicinal plants at Roman fort excavations.
“[These plants include] St. John’s wort, used for blood ailments; fenugreek for poultices; figs for treating wounds; and plantain for dysentery” (Barber 130). The article goes on to suggest that wine was often medicated and drunk to aid injured soldiers and that the courtyard of each Roman army hospital was used as a garden to grow these medicinal herbs."
Issues with Roman Medicine:
The Medical Profession:
In Ancient Rome, there were no governmental oversight boards that monitored or governed medicine’s practice or study. If one wanted to be a doctor, he generally acted as an apprentice to a practicing physician and learned from everyday experience. Until the end of the republic, almost anyone could act as a doctor. Slaves and members of the lower classes commonly practiced medicine, and in doing so, performed it more as a trade for economic benefit than as the science that we know it to be today. With these reasons, it is not surprising to learn that Romans in general were suspicious and skeptical about doctors. It was not until 40 B.C. that the first regular school of medicine was founded by Asclepiades of Bithynia in Rome. At this time, medical practitioners now received a better public perception as their statuses has become elevated from having official and state recognized qualifications. It is important to again recognize that Roman medicine developed over time with its starting roots originating from highly skilled Greek physicians.
Dentist examining a patient, A Profile of Ancient Rome. A Getty Publication.
Low Success Rates:
Although there were many medical successes in Ancient Rome, there were an abundance of medical fallacies. Poorer Roman citizens may have never seen a proper doctor, but instead could have visited a pharmocopolae, a person who simply dispensed drugs. Many people rejected the modern healthcare of the time all together, entrusting their lives to the gods. Some believed that by praying to specific gods that governed a specific area of the body that their ailments in that region could be healed. Ancient medical practices continued to pervade the Roman’s more modern approach to medicine involving the precise application of knowledge developed through careful observation. This ancient medicine instead tended to rely upon superstition, folk remedy, magic, and only a small amount of scientific methodology.
Social Distinction:
Many Roman doctors at the time used their title more for their own benefit than to help others. Both druggists and doctors oftentimes had bad reputations for charging ridiculously high prices for use of their equipment and services. Doctors would even make public announcements about their practice by holding misleading lectures to large city crowds. Also, doctors would alter their approach in aiding an individual to cater to their patient’s needs. For example, an educated Roman would value philosophy. The Roman doctor, in turn, would administer medical services that were philosophically based rather than medically proven to appease the customer.
Women in Medicine:
Women generally gave birth with the help of a midwife in their home. Some ancients found interest in gynecology, although it was not as much of a focus in Roman medicine as it is today. A nutrix, or nurse, was often hired to breast-feed one’s children. These nurses generally assisted the upper class citizens of Rome, and they were responsible for feeding multiple children from different homes in the same day. The ancient Roman view was that this activity of sharing a wet nurse among multiple kids would one day lead to them having strong bonds with one another.
Bibliography
Barber, Kenneth E. "Hospitals and Treatment Facilities in the Ancient World." Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 1: 2,000 B.C. to A.D. 699. Detroit: Gale, 2001. 131-134. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Conti, Flavio. A Profile of Ancient Rome. Los Angeles: Getty Publications , 2003. Print.
Ferngren, Gary B., and Darrel W. Amundsen. "Healing and Medicine: Healing and Medicine in Greece and Rome." Encyclopedia of Religion. Ed. Lindsay Jones. 2nd ed. Vol. 6. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. 3839-3842. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Fillmore, Randolph. "The Military Medicine of Ancient Rome." Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 1: 2,000 B.C. to A.D. 699. Detroit: Gale, 2001. 128-131. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Gabriel, R.. "THE BEST MEDICINE. " Military History 1 Jul 2011: Military Module, ProQuest. Web. 24 Jun. 2011.
"Health and Hygiene." World Eras. Ed. John T. Kirby. Vol. 3: Roman Republic and Empire, 264 B.C.E.- 476 C.E. Detroit: Gale Group, 2001. 398-399. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
"Medical Issues." World Eras. Ed. John T. Kirby. Vol. 3: Roman Republic and Empire, 264 B.C.E.- 476 C.E. Detroit: Gale Group, 2001. 285-286. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
"Medicine, Roman." Ancient Greece and Rome: An Encyclopedia for Students. Ed. Carroll Moulton. Vol. 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998. 38-40. Gale World History In Context. Web. 24 June 2011.
Successes of Roman medicine:
In the Ancient times, you would expect as a Roman citizen to have the best healthcare in the world. According to the article “Health and Hygiene,” a number of factors contributed to the overall better health standards that citizens experienced including good nutrition and good public health.Table of Contents
Roman Nutrition:
The diet of the average Roman was quite nutritious, and there were generally three meals a day that consisted of an ientaculum (breakfast), a prandium (lunch), and a cena (dinner). Their diet consisted of whole-grains, eggs, cold meats, fruit, vegetables, and fish. These meals were complimented with homemade, healthy natural oils that were high in vitamins and amino acids. The large selection of different foods made for a well balanced diet that can be largely contributed to Roman Imperial Expansion that was occurring during its history.Hygiene and Exercise:
In addition to a varied and healthy diet, Romans commonly visited bathhouses where they would bathe and then exercise. Bathhouses could be compared to modern day gym facilities in that they provided many amenities including massages, personal medical consultants, and lectures on general heath and diet for Roman citizens to enjoy. Visiting bathhouses was a lifestyle choice for many and was a regular part of the average Roman’s day. Interestingly, common cultural standards of the time looked down upon body odors, so Roman people made sure to put personal cleansing high on their list of priorities.Public Healthcare:
The Roman people, on average, lived much longer lives than that of their ancient counterparts because of strong medical intervention and assistance from the government. According to “Health and Hygiene,” the Roman government “provide[d] free, publically paid medical services for the poor.” Nearly all of the Roman municipalities at the time contracted local doctors whom they paid relatively low wages to provide these services. Although the position as a public physician was quite coveted and competitive, the doctors did receive a low wage at the end of the day. To combat this, many physicians operated small, privately owned practices on the side where they would assist wealthier Roman citizens who were willing to pay for healthcare.Roman Medical Advancements:
The Military:
As summarized by Richard Gabriel in his article “The Best Medicine,”“Death came slowly to soldiers wounded on the battlefields of antiquity. The muscle-powered weapons that hacked at their flesh only rarely inflicted sudden death. Bodies pierced by spears or slashed by swords lingered in agony, sometimes for hours, until the loss of blood brought on shock, convulsions, and, finally, the unconsciousness that precedes death. That was the way it was from the beginning of warfare until modern times—with one surprising exception. In the Roman army wounded soldiers had a good chance to recover and live.”
Looking back into history to see what allowed the relatively high success rates of Roman soldiers’ recoveries compared to other armies at the time dates back to the first attempts at healthcare in the army. Before the reign of Gaius Julius Caesar, many Roman officers would leave injured soldiers behind if they were injured; they simply did not have the knowledge or expertise to aid their distressed comrades. This soon changed when Emperor Augustus (63 B.C. – 14 A.D.) started the first professional military healthcare system that consisted of a group of physicians who followed and assisted injured soldiers. To attract well-experienced and competent physicians, Augustus gave these special medical privileges:
Serving in the medical corps for the Roman Army would entail earning the status of a knight (or dignitas equestris), gaining full citizenship for those who were not previously citizens, receiving the land grants and pensions that soldiers would receive upon retirement, and getting the special tax exemptions that could further perpetuate a officer’s incentive to join the medical corps. Surprisingly, the majority of these Roman army physicians were actually Greeks who had been trained in the empirical practice of medicine back home. In fact, “The Military Medicine of Ancient Rome” states that “[b]efore Greek influences, the Roman legions did not have any organized, professional medical services” (Ferngren 128).
The Roman medical corps soon published standardized manuals about varying types of injuries that made treatment more uniform for all doctors. In addition to the work being done on the battlefield, the corps turned to the living arrangements of the soldiers to ensure better healthcare. Again, they reinforced a high hygienic standard by implementing sewers, providing clean water, making regular health inspections, setting up mosquito netting, providing sunburn oil, and giving healthy and varied meals to soldiers. Additionally, the dead were cremated far from the military encampment’s walls to ensure sterility with the deceased, and soldiers were strongly persuaded to have clean clothes and equipment at all times. With all of these factors combined, “[the average] Roman soldier lived nearly five years longer than the average Roman citizen” (Gabriel 38).
Positions in the Roman Military:
Praefectus castrorum- placed in overall charge of medical servicesOptio valentudinarii- responsible for running the hospitals at legion fortresses
Capsarii- medics who carried bandage boxes onto the battlefield
Medicus- the Roman medical officer who was fully trained and directed the medical personnel. Generally were Greek or Greek trained.
Surgical Tools:
The only complete medical text of value that is left today from antiquity is entitled De Medicina, a recording of Roman military surgeon Aulus Cornelius Celsus’s experiences serving in the medical corp. In this text, he describes many instruments that were vital in saving lives.
Roman Medications:
A variety of medications were available to Roman citizens at the time. Much like today, these medicines varied in strength and application as different areas of the body required unique attention. Records left from ancient medical texts reveal the use of opium poppy and henbane to treat pain (Gabriel 39). Henbane seeds contain scopolamine, a compound that can be found in today’s medical fields as a substance that acts as a preanesthetic. Additionally, white mandrake was used as a surgical drug. The root of this plant produces the chemicals hyoscine and atropine that were vital for numbing affected areas.Additionally, the article “Hospitals and Treatment Facilities in the Ancient World” reveals that archaeologists have found the remains of five medicinal plants at Roman fort excavations.
“[These plants include] St. John’s wort, used for blood ailments; fenugreek for poultices; figs for treating wounds; and plantain for dysentery” (Barber 130). The article goes on to suggest that wine was often medicated and drunk to aid injured soldiers and that the courtyard of each Roman army hospital was used as a garden to grow these medicinal herbs."
Issues with Roman Medicine:
The Medical Profession:
In Ancient Rome, there were no governmental oversight boards that monitored or governed medicine’s practice or study. If one wanted to be a doctor, he generally acted as an apprentice to a practicing physician and learned from everyday experience. Until the end of the republic, almost anyone could act as a doctor. Slaves and members of the lower classes commonly practiced medicine, and in doing so, performed it more as a trade for economic benefit than as the science that we know it to be today. With these reasons, it is not surprising to learn that Romans in general were suspicious and skeptical about doctors. It was not until 40 B.C. that the first regular school of medicine was founded by Asclepiades of Bithynia in Rome. At this time, medical practitioners now received a better public perception as their statuses has become elevated from having official and state recognized qualifications. It is important to again recognize that Roman medicine developed over time with its starting roots originating from highly skilled Greek physicians.
Dentist examining a patient, A Profile of Ancient Rome. A Getty Publication.
Low Success Rates:
Although there were many medical successes in Ancient Rome, there were an abundance of medical fallacies. Poorer Roman citizens may have never seen a proper doctor, but instead could have visited a pharmocopolae, a person who simply dispensed drugs. Many people rejected the modern healthcare of the time all together, entrusting their lives to the gods. Some believed that by praying to specific gods that governed a specific area of the body that their ailments in that region could be healed. Ancient medical practices continued to pervade the Roman’s more modern approach to medicine involving the precise application of knowledge developed through careful observation. This ancient medicine instead tended to rely upon superstition, folk remedy, magic, and only a small amount of scientific methodology.Social Distinction:
Many Roman doctors at the time used their title more for their own benefit than to help others. Both druggists and doctors oftentimes had bad reputations for charging ridiculously high prices for use of their equipment and services. Doctors would even make public announcements about their practice by holding misleading lectures to large city crowds. Also, doctors would alter their approach in aiding an individual to cater to their patient’s needs. For example, an educated Roman would value philosophy. The Roman doctor, in turn, would administer medical services that were philosophically based rather than medically proven to appease the customer.Women in Medicine:
Women generally gave birth with the help of a midwife in their home. Some ancients found interest in gynecology, although it was not as much of a focus in Roman medicine as it is today. A nutrix, or nurse, was often hired to breast-feed one’s children. These nurses generally assisted the upper class citizens of Rome, and they were responsible for feeding multiple children from different homes in the same day. The ancient Roman view was that this activity of sharing a wet nurse among multiple kids would one day lead to them having strong bonds with one another.
Bibliography
Barber, Kenneth E. "Hospitals and Treatment Facilities in the Ancient World." Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 1: 2,000 B.C. to A.D. 699. Detroit: Gale, 2001. 131-134. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Conti, Flavio. A Profile of Ancient Rome. Los Angeles: Getty Publications , 2003. Print.
Ferngren, Gary B., and Darrel W. Amundsen. "Healing and Medicine: Healing and Medicine in Greece and Rome." Encyclopedia of Religion. Ed. Lindsay Jones. 2nd ed. Vol. 6. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. 3839-3842. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Fillmore, Randolph. "The Military Medicine of Ancient Rome." Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 1: 2,000 B.C. to A.D. 699. Detroit: Gale, 2001. 128-131. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Gabriel, R.. "THE BEST MEDICINE. " Military History 1 Jul 2011: Military Module, ProQuest. Web. 24 Jun. 2011.
"Health and Hygiene." World Eras. Ed. John T. Kirby. Vol. 3: Roman Republic and Empire, 264 B.C.E.- 476 C.E. Detroit: Gale Group, 2001. 398-399. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
"Medical Issues." World Eras. Ed. John T. Kirby. Vol. 3: Roman Republic and Empire, 264 B.C.E.- 476 C.E. Detroit: Gale Group, 2001. 285-286. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
"Medicine, Roman." Ancient Greece and Rome: An Encyclopedia for Students. Ed. Carroll Moulton. Vol. 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998. 38-40. Gale World History In Context. Web. 24 June 2011.